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比较文学

比较文学

比较文学指的是跨文化与跨学科的文学研究。 比较文学是一种文学研究，它首先要求研究在不同文化和不同学科中人与人通过文学进行沟通的种种历史、现状和可能。它致力于不同文化之间的相互理解，并希望相互怀有真诚的尊重和宽容。
- [http://ca.geocities.com/gruppo04web/bookmarks.html Gruppo04:] web resources for comparative literary studies Category:文學批評

文化

文化是指人类所创造的精神财富，如文学、艺术、教育、科学等。在考古学上则指同一历史时期的遗迹、遗物的综合体。同样的工具、用具、制造技术等是同一种文化的特征。有时文化也指文明。 虽然早在原始社会时期，人类就已经形成的第一次分工，产生了农业民族和畜牧民族，但早期文化都是在农业民族中产生的，因为畜牧民族要逐水草而居，居无定所，不容易产生大规模的聚居，对文字没有迫切的需要；而农业民族容易形成大部落，兴修水利需要大量协同工作的人群，所以最早的大国家和奴隶制都产生于农业民族。有了大国家和奴隶制才能产生大批聚集的有闲阶级，他们发明了文字，促使形成脑力劳动和体力劳动的人类第二次分工。从而产生狭义的文化(广义的文化指所有人类的活动，都可以叫作文化)。

文化的概念

文化一词起源于拉丁文的动词“Colere”，意思是耕作土地，后引申为培养一个人的兴趣、精神和智能。文化概念是英国人类学家爱德华·泰勒在1871年提出的。他将文化定义为“包括知识、信仰、艺术、法律、道德、风俗以及作为一个社会成员所获得的能力与习惯的复杂整体”。此后，文化的定义层出不穷，克莱德·克拉克洪在1950年代末期搜集了100多个文化的定义。 文化在汉语中实际是“人文教化”的简称。前提是有“人”才有文化，意即文化是讨论人类社会的专属语；“文”是基础和工具，包括语言和/或文字；“教化”是这个词的真正重心所在：作为名词的“教化”是人群精神活动和物质活动的共同规范（同时这一规范在精神活动和物质活动的对象化成果中得到体现），作为动词的“教化”是共同规范产生、传承、传播及得到认同的过程和手段。

对文化的一些观点

不同的学科对文化有着不同的理解。 从哲学角度解释文化，认为文化从本质上讲是哲学思想的表现形式。由于哲学的时代和地域性从而决定了文化的不同风格。一般来说，哲学思想的变革引起社会制度的变化，与之伴随的有对旧文化的镇压和新文化的兴起。 从存在主义的角度，文化是对一个人或一群人的存在方式的描述。人们存在于自然中，同时也存在于历史和时代中；时间是一个人或一群人存在于自然中的重要平台；社会、国家和民族（家族）是一个人或一群人存在于历史和时代中的另一个重要平台；文化是指人们在这种存在过程中的言说或表述方式、交往或行为方式、意识或认知方式。文化不仅用于描述一群人的外在行为，文化特别包括作为个体的人的自我的心灵意识和感知方式。一个人在回到自己内心世界的时的一种自我的对话、观察的方式。 文化的核心是其符号系统，如文字。各文字体系有相应的认知心理。

文化的特点

通过对不同文化的比较研究，才能了解文化的特点。 首先文化是共有的，它是一系列共有的概念、价值观和行为准则，它是使个人行为能力为集体所接受的共同标准。文化与社会是密切相关的，没有社会就不会有文化，但是也存在没有文化的社会。在同一社会内部，文化也具有不一致性。例如，在任何社会中，男性的文化和女性的文化就有不同。此外，不同的年龄、职业、阶级等之间也存在着亚文化的差异。 文化是学习得来的，而不是通过遗传而天生具有的。生理的满足方式是由文化决定的，每种文化决定这些需求如何得到满足。从这一角度看，非人的灵长目动物也有各种文化行为的能力，但是這些文化行為只是單向的文化表現如吃白蟻的方式警戒的呼喊聲等。這和人類社會中龐大複雜的文化象徵體系相比較僅顯得有些微不足道。 參考:濡化 文化的基础是象徵。這些其中最重要的是语言和文字，但也包含其他表現方式如圖像(如圖騰旗幟)肢體動作(如握手 吐舌)行為解讀(送禮)等我們幾乎可以說整個文化體系是透過龐大無比的象徵體系深植在人類的思維之中而人們也透過這套象徵符號體系理解解讀呈現在眼前的中種種事物。因此如何解讀各種象徵在該文化的實質意義便成為人類學和語言學等社會學科詮釋人類心智的重要方式之一 此外，文化作为相互关系的整体而呈现出一体化的趋势。

文化的分类


- 史前文化
- 古代文化
  - 黄河流域文化
  - 尼罗河流域文化
  - 两河流域文化
  - 印度河流域文化
- 中古文化
  - 古希腊、罗马文化
  - 古波斯文化
  - 古印度文化
  - 古代中国文化
- 中世纪文化
  - 基督教文化
  - 伊斯兰文化
  - 印度文化
  - 儒家文化
- 近代文化
  - 帝国主义文化
  - 殖民地文化
- 现代文化
  - 社会主义文化
  - 资本主义文化
  - 第三世界文化
- 后现代文化
  - 发达国家文化
  - 发展中国家文化
  - 最不发达国家文化
- 未来文化

参看


- 文化例外
- 文化研究
- category:人类学 ja:文化 simple:Culture zh-min-nan:Bûn-hoà

Category:文學批評

category:文学

Retracted article on neurotoxicity of ecstasy

This article concerns problems with a paper, "Severe dopaminergic neurotoxicity in primates after a common recreational dose regimen of MDMA ("ecstasy")'" that appeared in the leading journal Science, treated as a case study in scientific method. The publication of this paper has been questioned following the publishing and retraction of Dr. George Ricaurte's article on the psychotropic drug ecstasy. (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is the chemical name for "ecstasy".) It has also been asserted that this questions the peer review process. Many have also argued that the failings in the paper (use of materials other than those specified) could not have been caught by peer review; and that the scientific process did work successfully in the end, in that the article was ultimately retracted. The paper was published in the 27 September 2002 [http://www.sciencemag.org/content/vol297/issue5590/index.shtml#reports issue] of Science (volume 297, pages 2260-3). The article had been submitted to Science on 29 May 2002 and was accepted for publication on 14 August 2002. Neither the time required for peer review nor the time between acceptance for publication and actual date of publication were unusual.

Original publication

The Ricaurte article was published in the middle of a group of 16 "reports" and not given special prominence in the "Highlights of research in this issue" section of the 27 September 2002 issue of Science. The short editorial commentary on the article was called "More Dangers from Designer Drugs" and drew the reader's attention to previously published research indicating that "ecstasy" use alters serotoninergic synaptic transmission. Science also commented that by linking "ecstasy" to dopaminergic neurotoxicity in monkeys, the Ricaurte article suggested that recreational users of "ecstasy" might be putting themselves at risk for developing neuropsychiatric disorders that are related to dopamine dysfunction. The Science section called "News of the Week" in the 27 September 2002 issue had an article by reporter Constance Holden called, "Drug Find Could Give Ravers the Jitters" (on pages 2185-2187). This "news" coverage did give some special prominence to the Ricaurte article. The Holden commentary stressed that the Ricaurte article was part of an active scientific controversy about the ability of "ecstasy" to cause permanent brain damage in human recreational drug users. This "news" article included a section with speculation from Ricaurte trying to justify why other researchers fail to observe ecstasy-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity. Jon Cole of the University of Liverpool explained that the results on dopaminergic neurotoxicity in the Ricaurte article were a big surprise and was quoted as saying, “The entire human literature relies on the notion that MDMA is a selective serotonergic neurotoxin.” The Ricaurte article was not sensationalized by Science for its implications concerning any pending anti-rave legislation before Congress.

Published concerns about the study

The 6 June 2003 [http://www.sciencemag.org/content/vol300/issue5625/index.shtml#letters issue] of Science contained a letter ("MDMA ("Ecstasy") and Neurotoxicity", volume 300, pages 1504-1505) that questioned the results of the September 2002 Ricaurte article. Ricaurte was allowed to provide a reply. Ricaurte stood by the results of the September 2002 article and further suggested that even careful clinical MDMA research ran the risk of causing brain injury.

Formal retraction

The retraction of the September 2002 Ricaurte article was published in the 12 September 2003 [http://www.sciencemag.org/content/vol301/issue5639/index.shtml#letters issue] of Science (volume 301, page 1479). Ricaurte said that methamphetamine had been the cause of the previously reported dopaminergic neurotoxicity, not "ecstasy". The retraction letter seemed to suggest that the supplier of the drugs had switched the labels on two bottles (one containing "ecstasy" and one containing methamphetamine) that were shipped to the Ricaurte lab on the same day.

Aftermath of the retraction

In the 12 September 2003 issue of Science there was also another Constance Holden "News of the Week" article called "Paper on Toxic Party Drug Is Pulled Over Vial Mix-Up". Holden reported that the drug supplier, Research Triangle Institute, was conducting a thorough review of its procedures to see if it could have switched the labels on the drug bottles. Ricaurte was reported to still be interested in previous results that suggested MDMA is toxic to dopamine neurons in mice. In a review of the year's events published in the 19 December 2003 issue of Science (volume 302, page 2033), Editor-in-Chief Donald Kennedy wrote, "It was also a vintage year for scientific fluffs. We shared in one: Some vials containing the recreational drug Ecstasy got switched with vials containing methamphetamine, and we wound up publishing a paper we wish we hadn't".

External links


- [http://www.maps.org/research/mdma/studyresponse.html MAPS.org archive] with extensive links to media coverage and copies of the original "Science" articles.
- [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/health/HealthRepublish_944856.htm Science accused of 'grabbing headlines']
- [http://thedea.org/lettertoscience.html TheDEA.org: Letter to Science] Highly critical letter pointing out flaws in the original research article (pre-retraction.) Nerotoxicity of ecstasy, retracted article Nerotoxicity of ecstasy, retracted article

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